Zoroastrianism, Judaism. AI

Claude

When, where were the first influential commentaries on Zoroastrianism written down?

Based on the search results, the first influential commentaries on Zoroastrianism were written in Pahlavi (Middle Persian) during the Sasanian Empire period, from around the 8th to 10th centuries CE , particularly during the 9th century .

These commentaries, known as the Zand, were written in Persia (modern-day Iran). The term "Zend Avesta" refers to the commentaries made by Zoroaster's successors on his writings, and later commentaries to the commentaries were written in Pahlavi .

The most important phase for these texts came during the Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE), when:

Ardashir I (r. 224-240 CE) brought Zoroastrian priests to his court to recite sacred verses so they could be written down, a policy continued by his son Shapur I The work wasn't completed until the reign of Shapur II (309-379 CE) and wasn't finalized until Kosrau I (531-579 CE).

The major surviving works from this period include the Denkard, Bundahishn, Menog-i Khrad, Selections of Zadspram, Jamasp Namag, Epistles of Manucher, Rivayats, Dadestan-i-Denig, and Arda Viraf Namag .

The 9th-10th century period was particularly crucial because it occurred during early Islamic rule, and these texts represented a prodigious output of religious literature that helped preserve Zoroastrianism through the production of encyclopedias, treatises on ethics and ritual, and theological tracts .

What is known or can be inferred on Zoroaster commentaries during the Iron Age Persian empire b.c.?

Based on the search results, here's what is known and can be inferred about Zoroastrian commentaries during the Iron Age Persian (Achaemenid) Empire:

What We Know:

No written commentaries existed during the Achaemenid period. The Avesta was transmitted purely through oral tradition during the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE), and was not written down until the Sasanian period (224-651 CE) .

Oral transmission was the primary method. The Young Avestan texts were transmitted in a fluid oral tradition during this period, being "composed partly afresh with each generation of poet-priests, sometimes with the addition of new material" .

What Can Be Inferred:

The tradition crystallized during Achaemenid times. Scholars correlate the "second crystallization" of Young Avestan texts—when they stopped being fluid and became fixed—with the adoption of Zoroastrianism by the Achaemenids . This suggests that while not written, there was a process of standardization.

Evidence of Zoroastrian familiarity. The Persian administration and common folk in the Achaemenid period displayed traits associated with known Zoroastrian doctrines and had familiarity with Old and Young Avestan religious language, especially the Gathas . Some Achaemenid throne names are based on passages from the Gathas , indicating intimate knowledge of the texts.

Religious practice under the Magi. Religion under the Achaemenids was in the hands of the Magi, a Median priestly tribe with special customs , who presumably maintained and transmitted the oral traditions.

The legend of destruction. According to later Zoroastrian legend, sacred texts were lost when Alexander the Great's troops destroyed the royal library at Persepolis , though there's no solid evidence that written versions existed at that time.

Well one can see in Hebrew religious thought strong Zoroastrian influences.

You're absolutely right - this is a widely observed phenomenon in scholarship, though the extent and nature of the influence remains debated.

Key Areas of Apparent Zoroastrian Influence:

Heaven, Hell, and the Afterlife: Before the Babylonian exile, Jews believed that souls of the dead went to "Sheol," a dull, Hades-like place. After the exile and Persian contact, the idea of a moralized afterlife with heavenly rewards for good and hellish punishment for evil appears in Judaism . Notably, the word "Paradise" comes from ancient Iranian pairi-daeza meaning "enclosed garden," one of the very few definite Persian loan-words in the Bible .

Cosmic Dualism and Satan: The figure of Satan in the Hebrew Bible evolves from being merely an accuser in early texts like Job to a more adversarial figure in later Jewish literature, potentially reflecting Zoroastrian influence . In 2 Samuel 24 (pre-exile), God incites David to take a census, but in the parallel account in 1 Chronicles 21 (post-exile), it is Satan who tempts David .

Messianism and Eschatology: The Jewish idea of a coming Savior or Messiah was influenced by Zoroastrian messianism . The Book of Daniel explicitly mentions resurrection of the dead and final judgment, an eschatological framework that resembles Zoroastrian eschatology and the concept of the Saoshyant, a savior who will lead humanity in the final battle against evil .

Angelology and Demonology: Jews under Achaemenid rule were influenced by Zoroastrian angelology, demonology, and eschatology, as well as ideas about compensatory justice in life and after death .

The Scholarly Debate:

The timing is crucial: The Babylonian captivity lasted from 586-539 BCE, after which Cyrus the Persian conquered Babylon and allowed Jews to return . This provided approximately two centuries of contact with Persian religious thought.

However, scholars disagree on the strength of this influence. Some argue the evidence is largely circumstantial, while others point to the historical impossibility of denying contact given the political realities. The debate also involves questions of dating - when exactly did Zoroaster live, and which texts influenced which?

How much of that theology should be attributed to Zoroaster directly?

Excellent question. This gets to the heart of distinguishing Zoroaster's original teachings from later developments in the religion. Here's what we can attribute to Zoroaster himself based on the Gathas versus what developed later:

Core Ideas in the Gathas (Zoroaster's Original Teachings):

Individual Judgment and Ethical Dualism: According to scholar Mary Boyce, Zoroaster was the first to teach individual judgment, Heaven and Hell, future resurrection of the body, general last judgment, and life everlasting . However, the original dualism in the Gathas was psychological or ethical in terms—describing good and evil as conflicting principles within human beings, the "beneficent" and "hostile" spirits, with everyone needing to choose Good .

Ethical Focus: The Gathas express eschatological themes including a radically egalitarian ethic, respect for manual labor, and disdain for violence and self-aggrandizement of the powerful .

Savior Concept: In the Gathas, Zoroaster describes a saoshyant (savior) as anyone who is a benefactor of the people —a much simpler concept than what came later.

Major Later Developments:

Cosmic Dualism: By the Hellenistic era, Zoroastrianism had developed its doctrine of "cosmic dualism"—the idea that the entire Universe is a battlefield between the One Good God, Ahura Mazda, and the separate Spirit of Evil, Ahriman . This was a transformation and expansion of Zoroaster's original psychological teaching.

Elaborate Eschatology: The messianic traditions about three "saviors" appearing at 1,000-year intervals, culminating with the Saoshyant being born to a virgin, and the detailed resurrection sequence developed over time after Zoroaster .

Detailed Afterlife Mechanics: Most of what we know about hell in Zoroastrianism comes from secondary texts generally dated from the 6th to 9th century CE . The elaborate bridge of judgment, the figure of Rashnu as judge, and specific details about punishment were later elaborations.

The Sacred Timeline: Concepts like the Day of Judgment and crossing the Pol e Chinvat bridge developed gradually over one thousand years after Zoroaster's teachings, undergoing interpretations and distortions .

So while the core ideas of individual moral responsibility, judgment after death, reward and punishment, and choosing good over evil appear to come from Zoroaster himself in the Gathas, the elaborate cosmology, detailed eschatological framework, and cosmic battle between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman developed over centuries of theological reflection and cultural evolution.